Predict human behaviour Essay

Dissonance theory accepts that we have these inconsistencies and basically says as humans we strive to smooth out any inconsistencies. This theory is best explained with an example; Jenny works everyday but today her sister is going shopping and has asked Jenny if she would like to come. Jenny should go to work and does. Jenny’s knowledge that she is missing out on the shopping trip is known as a dissonant cognition, whereas the knowledge that she has come to work and is earning some money is a consonant cognition. Her dissonance will increase even more if the trip is to an out-of-town shopping complex as opposed to the small local centre. Individuals do not want to have dissonant cognition therefore try to reduce it. Jenny can do this in a number of ways; firstly, she can keep telling herself about the extra money she is earning and perhaps convince herself that she had a pleasurable day at work. She could also reduce the dissonant cognition by telling herself she would have only spent money on things she cannot afford and doesn’t really need. Consonant cognitions justify a persons chosen action and the greater the benefit of something, the greater the justification and the lower the state of dissonance. If however the benefit of the consonant cognition is only small then the dissonance will increase. Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) tested this theory by getting subjects to perform really dull tasks for an hour then asked them to tell the next subjects that the tasks were rather interesting. Subjects were offered either $20 or $1 for lying. Festinger and Carlsmith were interested in how the subjects felt after telling the lie. According to dissonance theory their feelings should depend on the amount of money they were paid. Subjects receiving $20 should feel little dissonance because the larger amount of money justifies lying. The subjects who received $1 should feel greater dissonance because the money didn’t justify lying and these subjects would try and convince themselves the task was in fact quite enjoyable, in order to reduce dissonance. Festinger and Carlsmith found subjects in the $1 condition reported a more favourable attitude towards the task, which is consistent with the original predictions. Bem (1967) suggested that a person’s behaviour is what shapes their attitude, for example (to quote Bem) ‘since I eat brown bread then I must like brown bread’. This logic could be linked with Festinger and Carlsmith’s study because if the second lot of subjects were told the tasks were interesting then they would take this opinion on board and actually find the tasks interesting. Assimilation-Contrast Theory (Sherif and Hovland, 1961), this suggests we people favour their own attitudes and if a person comes across another person with an attitude relatively close to their own then they perceive it to resemble their own attitude more than it actually does (this is the ‘assimilation’ part of the theory) and they will evaluate it in a more positive way by seeing it as fair. Basically this suggests people are biased when it comes to their attitudes because people will accept anything that resembles a similar attitude to their own. Attitudes which had less in common with their attitudes would be rejected and seen as unfair (this is the ‘contrast’ part of the theory). This is mainly because assimilating attitudes is much easier than trying to accommodate new attitudes. The theory of reasoned behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) suggests that subjective norms (which are beliefs about what is appropriate behaviour in a situation) and attitude towards the behaviour (based on expectancies and values) suggest a behavioural intention which then predicts behaviour. The definition of attitude and intention in this context is very similar and doesn’t define in strong enough terms exactly what the intentions derived are. All this evidence shows varying approaches towards the attitude-behaviour link, some in support of attitude predicting behaviour and some against it. To say that attitude has three main parts which are highly correlated draws up too many contradictions to conclude it as the best theory, the single model provides more scope to address these contradictions but dissonance theory which suggest we will have inconsistencies and will just strive to balance them is a much more realistic proposal of how attitude links with and predicts behaviour. The evidence shows that there is a link between attitude and how it can predict behaviour but it is not to the extent that you can say it predicts a person’s behaviour every time in all situations. References * McDougall, W. (1960) an introduction to social psychology 23rd ed. London New York. Methuen, Barnes & Noble. * Mills, J. (1969) experimental social psychology. New York London. MacMillan, Collier-Macmillan * Ajzen, I. (1980) Does understanding a persons attitude help us to predict their behaviour?

Sony..read the requirement carefully Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Sony..read the requirement carefully - Essay Example It is also among the top a hundred effectively managed companies across the business world (Koontz & Weihrich 2006, p. 104). This was because of its renowned heritage of creativeness and innovativeness. On the other hand, marketing concept is a marketing philosophy in which a company’s goals revolve around the identification and achieving the needs and wants of the customers (Singh 2004, p. 11). Many company’s have adopted this concept over the recent years and Sony company is one of the firms that have made use of this philosophy in order to achieve its consumer oriented goals. With this, this essay will delve into the relevance of the marketing concept to Sony Corporation by expounding on the ways in which the company has applied it successfully to encompass its global operations. The history of marketing concept In prior years, companies used the sales concept and the production concept to foster their operations, but they proved ineffective in achieving the consumer satisfaction. In essence, the production concept was in existence in the 1920s and its rise attributed to the industrial revolution witnessed across the globe (Faarup 2010, p. 23). The concept was effective because most of the goods produced at this time met the basic needs hence creating a higher demand for the same. At this time, the sale of the manufactured products was easy as sales teams were able to execute sales transactions through a price that was subject to the cost of production. The sales concept followed the production concept in the 1930s because of increased competition that was able to meet the unfulfilled demands. The idea behind this concept was that companies had to influence consumers to buy their products through promotional strategies because of the competition experienced in the market. The sales concept failed because its focus was mainly on the sale of the products without factoring in whether the consumers actually needed the product that they were selling . The implication of this was that this did not attain customer satisfaction as marketing came after the development and production of the products for sale. However, many equate marketing to sales, but these two entities are quite different in terms of approach and influencing customer satisfaction. Marketing concept gained momentum after the Second World War because of the increased consumer spending because people could now afford to buy selected products (Faarup 2010, p. 24). With this, companies began to focus more on the needs of the consumers by developing products after ascertaining what the market wanted. The advantage that this presented was that companies could now achieve profits by satisfying the consumer needs for their overall benefit. In essence, marketing concept relies on research of the market to determine the market size, needs, and the segments that exist within the market. In order to satisfy the needs of the consumers, the marketing team decides on the ways of controlling the parameters of the marketing mix. Sony Corporation and the marketing mix Marketing mix is a business-marketing tool, which encompasses the four Ps in the influencing of consumers towards accessing a company’s products and services for the attainment of its goals and objectives (Lamb et al 2008, p. 148). The four P’s are price, place, promotion, and product that when mixed reflect the nature of different

Gay and Lesbian Marriage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Gay and Lesbian Marriage - Essay Example This is clearly a situation where, while actions are happening on the micro level of society, the response is being created by the macro level of society. Gidden's Theory of Structuration looks in detail at how all levels of society interact and help to create the responses of the other levels. Gidden's suggests that no social structure is permanent; rather it is built upon the actions of those who reside inside of it. While society can not be explained from the macro level, it can also not be explained without it. By reviewing the concept of gay/lesbian marriage from through Gidden's theory, a clearer view of society emerges. Gidden's argues that there is a duality to social structure. While it is created by those who live in it, they are also bound to follow its' rules (Fuchs 1). While it is clearly ever changing, there are also certain areas which remain static, based upon the culture that is being reviewed. Gay/lesbian marriage is an issue that is currently affecting all cultures, causing slow changes to the status quo. In European nations, gay marriage is slowly gaining in acceptance. However, it still meets with strong disapproval in the United States. A key difference between the two societies is the religious factor. While most European countries claim Christianity as their religion, there is also a certain lax feature about religion. It is accepted that a person may or may not be religious, and that therefore not all people should be bound by religious ideals. At the same time, the United States claims

Comparing of World Views Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Comparing of World Views - Essay Example Among some of the worldviews in contemporary society are realism, liberalism and neo-liberalism. The subsequent sections offer an in depth comparison of the worldviews in light of understanding, their impact upon individuals, cultures and nations. Realism Worldview The realist worldview holds a pessimistic ideology of state relations, global politics and peaceful cohesion. According to, Thomas Hobbes, a world renown theorist of classical realism, â€Å"Where there is no common power, there is no law; where no law, no justice. Force and law are in war with the two cardinal virtues.† Consequently, the realist worldview contends that global politics is a constant fight for power, control and position by the partisan state interests. Thus in the quest for asserting power and influence, realists believe in military strength as a benchmark. In most cases the military strength is put to test and consequently places the threat of warfare and violence on the world (Griffiths, 2012). Fu rthermore, the realist view places responsibility on states as the major factors that influence actions in the world. Moreover, the human rights of individuals are violated over state interests. According to the realist worldview, there exists a lack of higher state authority to maintain order and global peace. As a result, the world is in a constant state of anarchy and states are compelled to maintain a high level of personal protection and defense. States are in constant lookout for ways to bolster their security and boost power. Consequently, the states with greater military capacity foment and assert their strength by intimidating or attacking other states. Thus, according to this worldview, war is not only a possibility, but inevitable. In a nut shell the core tenets of realism are that global politics are defined by power over justice, the struggle for power and the balance of power results to stability. Liberal Worldview The liberal worldview takes on a more positive stance in relation to world politics, the optimism of peace and state relations. According to Dworkin, a renowned liberal theorist, equal concern and respect are the basic tenets that government should apply in governing citizens (Dworkin, 1977). Moreover, John Rawls, a famous liberal political theorist, states that the legal system of any society must ascribe to the principles of justice and fairness. Furthermore, he adds that a liberal society flourishes from the rational decision making of human beings and consequently results to good life (Rawls, 1971). The roots of liberal worldview are attributed to Immanuel Kant’s philosophy book entitled â€Å"Towards Perpetual Peace.† Kant believed that global peace was a reality through Free State federations that promote security and international order. Furthermore, he stated that an independent legislature was fundamental in checking the powers of republican governments. Consequently, the basic tenets of liberal worldview critici ze the realist worldview by emphasizing on cooperation, cohesive existence and peace in the quest for world transformation. Furthermore, the liberal worldview believes in the possibility of global cooperation in contrast to power struggles. Moreover, liberalist worldview disregards anarchy and power struggles that are hypothesized by the realist worldview. The overriding reason forwarded is the interdependence of states that shape the reality of contemporary world politics. Modern day liberal theorist such as Kymlicka, offers a refined political liberal theory in

Balanced Scorecard for Banagas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Balanced Scorecard for Banagas - Essay Example From this report it is clear that  Balanced Scorecard was created in 1992 by Robert S. Kaplan and David Norton. It is a method for measuring a company's activities in terms of its vision and strategies giving managers a comprehensive view of the performance of a business. Generally, Balanced Scorecard can be characterized as a strategic management system that forces managers to focus on the important performance metrics that drive success. It balances a financial perspective with customer, internal process, and learning & growth perspective.As the report highlights Balanced Scorecard from a financial perspective measures reflecting financial performance, for example number of debtors, cash flow or return on investment. The financial performance of an organization is fundamental to its success. It should be noticed that the financial perspective of Balanced Scorecard usually refers to the estimation and evaluation of the figures revealed in the company’s accounts (trying to l ocate the firm’s current performance) as they can analyzed and presented using the common financial analysis practices.  From a Business Process Perspective, Balanced Scorecard measures the reflection of the performance of key business processes, for example the time spent prospecting, number of units that required rework or process cost.  The evaluation of the firm’s strategy and aims – as part of the specific area of Balanced Scorecard analysis and implementation – has to be regarded as a challenging task.

Fences, a play by August Wilson Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fences, a play by August Wilson - Research Paper Example This huge disenchantment sets the tone of the play. Troy is a tragic figure beset with waves of bad fortune, a victim of his time but as much his own fault. Troy’s tragic life is made more poignant by the author painting him as a tragic hero. Troy’s myopic interpretation of things and his unwillingness to adapt to reality are his two biggest flaws, blinding him and leading to his ultimate undoing. Troy is presented with opportunities to make peace with the other characters and redeem himself at critical crossroads but sadly he chose to remain in his fabricated world and his tragedy. The onset of act one, scene one provides the context of the big disenchantment in Troy’s life, that of his thwarted dream, resulting in his leading a mundane existence as a garbage collector. Troy has once been a promising baseball player in his prime, but he has been stripped of his chance to make it big in the Major Leagues because of his color. Troy could not reconcile with the fac t that he is too old to play in the Leagues when it finally opened up to black players and this residual bitterness and resentment distorted most of Troy’s perspective on things and people and reinforced his belief that he is a victim of his time. Despite this, Troy has never let go of his identity as a ball player. He continues to use baseball jargons to reflect his world view as in act one, scene one where he says â€Å"Death ain’t nothing but as fastball on the outside corner.† To his credit, Troy has fought back to emerge as a literary hero at the beginning of the play, where the other characters seem to revere him as the sole provider for the family and a fighter for equality at work. Troy’s flaws, however work against him. His narrow-minded perception has evolved into a dual set of standards over time in judging himself and others. This can be seen in Troy carrying himself around with excessive importance as the breadwinner but belittles of the work and accomplishment of others as in act one, scene three, â€Å"I do the best I can do. I come in here every Friday, I carry a sack of potatoes†¦you all line up with your hands stretched out at the door†¦I give you my sweat and my blood I ain’t got no tears†. To Troy, elder son Lyons’ chosen vocation as a jazz musician is simply a stunt in playing â€Å"Chinese music† and not serious work. Troy deduces this as the reason Lyons returns home to borrow money from him. As for Cory, his break into professional football hits a raw nerve in Troy’s thwarted dream. Troy could not accept that times have changed for black sportsman and Cory could actually make a career out of it. Cory brings up the achievement of black players like Clemente and Aaron and Kouflax, but Troy deflates their contributions. When Troy is losing out his argument to Cory, he throws the punch line, â€Å"I ain’t no Sandy Kouflax† in act one, scene three.. Instea d, he wants Cory to stay at a job instead of pursuing football. Cory’s giving away his job at A&P supermarket is seen by Troy as an act of defiance against him. Troy therefore imposes his authoritative presence on Cory in act one, scene three where he sabotages Cory’s opportunity by telling Cory’s coach that he can no longer play on his team. Troy’s shortsightedness prevents him from seeing the further ramifications of his act. Troy reasons that by sabotaging Cory’s chance would teach his son to obey his wishes. Instead it has set the wheels to motion to

Outline and evaluate Essay Example for Free

Outline and evaluate Essay Outline and evaluate the view that the role of youth culture is to assist in the transition from childhood to adulthood (33 marks) The view that youth culture is a transitory phase is a functionalist idea which comes under the process of social integration where individuals become integrated into different social groups so they have a sense of belonging. Parsons (1954), argued that youth culture provides a bridge from childhood to adulthood by enabling young people to become more independent and detached from their parents. This takes the view of youth culture being a ‘rite of passage’. Eisenstadt (1956) suggested youth culture bound young people together and formed a sense of community stemming from a shared way of life. There are some criticisms of the functionalist approach such as the emphasis of shared features which means they ignore the differences between youth subcultures, a Marxist would argue these differences are important and cannot be ignored. Another argument against functionalism would the focus on age specific groups which misses an opportunity to look at youth as a state of mind able to be felt by anyone regardless of age. Marxists pay more attention to subcultures than functionalists and their theories are associated with the CCCS. The CCCS is considered neo-Marxist and their view of youth subcultures is that they are a product of structural explanations such as the economy and social class rather than general explanations such as age. Hall and Jefferson (1976) believed youth subcultures are a form of resistance to the ‘crisis of capitalism’. Through adopting a subcultural style youths were able to reject the dominant culture. Clarke (1976), who studied skinhead culture, believed that through the subculture they were able to exaggerate their working class background and hold on to tradition in the face of the extinction of working class communities. Brake (1980) suggested youth subcultures provide ‘magical’ solutions by providing safety from problems and an opportunity to express freedom and new ideas. The subculture allows them to convince themselves they will be able to solve the problems of their time but the solutions aren’t able to be sustained in reality, thus the reason they are referred to as magical. Marxists are accused of ignoring the involvement of girls in subcultural groups and issues of ethnic identity. There is also an assumption in the CCCS work that most youths joined subcultures which is debateable as it is possible many were ‘ordinary youths’. The CCCS are also criticised of looking too far into the reasons why youths join subcultures, perhaps many of them joined just for fun. There have also been accusations of Marxists ignoring the role of the media in the formation of youth subcultures. The main argument feminists make is that other approaches largely ignore the role of females in subcultures. McRobbie and Garber (1976) were critical of the work the CCCS for this reason. Their research on female subcultures identified a ‘Bedroom culture’ which features included experimenting with make-up and hairstyles, discussing boys and magazines. There are few studies of all-girl subcultures but one that has been in the USA are the ‘Riot Grrrls’ who use powerful image forms of communication to display their anger and feelings of oppression. The feminist view focuses mainly on gender related issues and has been criticised for this but this approach seems to suggest the role of youth culture for girls, in the case of bedroom culture, is to share information about their personal life and gain advice to help them through the transitional phase and in the case of the Riot Grrrls to express themselves and challenge the dominant culture which is perceived to be male oriented. Postmodernists believe that youth style has become increasingly fragmented over the years. They argue that shared attachments are not the norm in the UK as youth styles are viewed as fluid changeable and eclectic. Bennett (1999) called these fluid and complex youth styles ‘Neo-tribes’. People can move in and out of these neo-tribes over time which reflects the transitory nature of youth. An example of a neo-tribe would be club culture. Polemus (1997) noted the ‘supermarket of style’ available to youths. They are able to choose from different fashions, music tastes and identities and mix them together to form their own. Postmodernist views have been criticised as there are still examples of subcultures in the present day such as goths or emos. The idea of fluidity may also be overstated as most young people don’t move in and out of neo-tribes over long periods of time. In conclusion, all of the approaches in a sense agree with youth culture being part of becoming an adult through increased independence and self-expression. It involves young people exploring their newfound responsibilities and freedoms along with ways to deal with any problems they face as a consequence.