That which is accepted as knowledge today is sometimes discarded Essay - 3

That which is accepted as knowledge today is sometimes discarded tomorrow. Consider knowledge issues raised by this statement in two areas of knowledge - Essay Example Clearly, from all indications, society is dynamic. Cultures change and people change in different timeframes. Thus, it is apparent that as time changes, what is regarded as true in one era might not be taken as accurate or correct in another generation. Culture refers to the way a group of people live and carry out their activities. Schabracq identifies that cultural change and knowledge have a symbiotic relationship2. This is because as knowledge increases in a given community or society, the way they do things and the way they perceive things also changes. This is because the worldview of a given people is based on their understanding of the world at every point in time. And this defines their values, norms and morals at every given point in time. This indicates that culture knowledge is bound to also change as the culture changes. This is because in a situation where a nations culture changes, what they define as â€Å"truth† will also change. This implies that the views and ideas of people are tied to the dominant culture and the dominant views of doing things. In the Western world today, people who were defined as deviant and illegals for their indulgence in same-sex affairs 50 years were humiliated and demeaned in the society. This is because the society had the belief that same sex activities were evil and defined as wrong by the dominant rules of the society. Many people were forced to seek treatments and others were discriminated against. However, due to changes in what these people call the â€Å"truth† or â€Å"knowledge†, the Western world has increasingly taken an acceptive approach to same sex partnerships. This shows that there is a trend towards changes and modification in a given society and this changes the definition of knowledge from time to time. The advances in knowledge and understanding of concepts and ideas puts an obligation on the authorities in a given sector to discard previous knowledge and take

The Due Process and Offender Supervision Models Essay Example for Free

The Due Process and Offender Supervision Models Essay The criminal justice system has been described on various models for dealing with offenders. According to Herbert Packer’s â€Å"Two Models of the Criminal Process† in 1964, he described the criminal justice process in the US as a result of the struggle between the two models or value systems. These two are the crime control model and the due process model. These two differs in their approach in dealing with offenders. The crime control model was described like that of the â€Å"assembly-line conveyor belt† since it aims to resolve the case and bring punishment to the offender as efficiently as possible. This model operates on the idea or â€Å"the presumption of guilt† that suggests that if the offender has been charged and arrested then they are really guilty of the crime and deserves punishments. The due process model also aims to convict the guilty but at the same time protect their rights and prevent innocent people from injustices, police abuses and inequality. This method might work in favor of the offender but not with the victims of crimes. It tends to slow down the process and may hinder the truth. This model has been described as the â€Å"obstacle course† for an efficient justice system. A new model also came out which seek to improve the current criminal justice system. These two new models include the punitive and non-punitive model. Punitive model is said to combine the crime control and due process model. This model asserts the retaliatory importance of punishment for the offender together with the need of the victims and the accused. The non-punitive model on the other hand have given emphasis on the attempt to minimize the pain of both victimization and punishment by promoting crime prevention and restorative justice this according to Kent Roach’s Four Models Of The Criminal Process. The criminal justice models have continued to improve its system as the crime offenders haven’t decrease from the years that passed. The rights of the victims and the offender have been both considered. The models serves as guide for law enforcers to minimize victimization at the same time provide efficient justice system. Community Corrections models The community corrections take many forms and types and each was tried and tested to identify which among is the best method to help rehabilitate crime offenders. What is the role of community corrections? This community correction pertains to pretrial diversion and intermediate sanctions given to felons or misdemeanants. It also refers to non incarcerative, yet supervised way of dealing with offenders. Community corrections takes the form of probation and parole, day reporting centers, house arrest, electronic monitoring, half way houses and many others. Among these probation and parole are the commonly utilized forms of community corrections. Community corrections operate on basic principles and philosophies. One of these is reintegration or residential stability which pertains to the need of the offender to be place in a home or community environment. The provision of professional services like medical or psychological assistance is also important. The offenders need to undergo rehabilitation. There must also be accountability between the offender and the supervisor to monitor and evaluate the progress. There is also economic efficiency which emphasizes the need of the offenders to find and hold a job to help them return in the society. These activities are based on the philosophy of restorative justice, the idea that offenders need to have a complete life change to be able to rejoin in the community once again. Community corrections has helped to lessen the overcrowding of jails, keep the cost of criminal justice down and provide as a final stage of the criminal justice process as mentioned in the Megalinks In Criminal Justice. In offender supervision there are also models or approaches being followed or adapted to be able for the officers to handle the offenders under their supervision and guidance especially in probation and parole. The Casework Supervision Model of 1900 to 1970 is a model concern with diagnosis and treatment. It is where that the officers saw themselves as â€Å"caseworkers†. The Brokerage Supervision Model of 1970 to 1980 identified that the officers are not adequately skilled to deliver specialized services. A Community Resource Management Team therefore is needed to provide services for employment training, drug and alcohol abuse treatment, family counseling and many other kinds of services. The next one is the Justice Model of Supervision of 1980-1995. It concerns with risk management and control, it also emphasized surveillance to effect compliance with court orders. Another model is the Broken Windows Model which gives emphasis on partnership with police and treatment providers, transparency and program evaluation of effectiveness according to Wes Krause’s Community Corrections. The Models and their Effectiveness in Dealing with Offenders Both the criminal justice system and community correction system have various models or approaches to consider. These models have been adjusted and modified to meet the changing needs of times and to improve its system. The crime control model and due process model are considered not enough to give justice to victims adequately that is why the punitive and non-punitive models are being adapted in the criminal justice system. The latest models of punitive and non-punitive models seek to remedy the problems that arise from previous models of criminal justice system. In punitive model for example the justice system combines the crime model and due process model to adequately meet the needs of both the offender and the crime victims. In the non punitive models some agree that punishment is not the solution in solving crime but can be solve through the use of crime prevention and restorative justice and other alternatives to incarceration. In the field of offender supervision, the Casework Model is traditionally and extensively used it is where that the officer becomes the primary agent of treatment and moral recovery. Later models seem to revitalize the existing approach making it more visible in the public and increase the success rate for probationers and parolees. The Promise of the Current Practices The current trends in the criminal justice system will definitely affect the future system. The future of law enforcement depends on which model will dominate the system in the future. If the Crime Control Model will dominate it is expected that the police will have fewer limitations to combat crime while if the Due Process Model dominates it is expected that pretrial detention will not be use to often and people are entitled to remain free until they are proven guilty. Also the Restorative Justice will be another alternative for the punitive justice currently used in the US. Reintegrative Shaming a form of restorative justice can also be adapted on the future law enforcement. Technology will greatly affect the current and future trends of criminal justice system. There will be increase in the use of interactive televisions, DNA profiling and DNA database. Electronic surveillance will create greater chance for monitoring of the offenders. In terms of community corrections, it faced issue on whether to devote more on punishment or rehabilitation. Intermediate sanction programs face a lot of problems like lack of funding and the inability to be as intensive as possible. The caseloads of officers continue to increase in number while the government continues to look for alternatives to incarceration. The community corrections had identified which method worked and doesn’t work out effectively in dealing with offenders. Work Cited Krause, Wes. â€Å"Chapter 6 the History of Supervision Philosophy and Practice†. Community Corrections. 19 November 2008. http://criminaljustice. csusb. edu/Krause/CJ431/CJ431Chapter6. pdf O’ Connor, T. â€Å"Community Corrections†. 2 July 2006. Megalinks in Criminal Justice. 19 November 2008. http://www. apsu. edu/ Roach, Kent. â€Å"Four Models of the Criminal Process†. 1999. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology: Northwestern University School of Law. 21 November 2008 http://findarticels. com â€Å"Chapter 14 Understanding and Predicting the Future of Criminal Justice†. 19 November 2008 http://www. unt. edu/cjus/Course_Pages/CJUS_2100/2100chapter14. ppt.

Protecting Yourself Online :: essays research papers

Protecting Yourself Online In this paper we will discuss some basic steps to better secure your system. We will discuss the following four (4) areas: v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Email v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Internet v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chat Programs v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Virus Protection 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Email:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Do not open any email attachment that you receive from anyone without checking first - not even from your closest friends.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If someone has to send you a doc file ask them to convert it into *.rtf or *.txt format and then send.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If you must open any doc extension files, you can first use one of those doc file readers available free on the net.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alternatively, you could convert the extension of the file (doc) to text (txt) and then open it with your text editor and see what the file is all about.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If you do decide to open it as a doc file in MS Word ensure that the macro security setting is set to HIGH  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In your email client turn off the 'receiving HTML mails' option. 2. Internet v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Set Explorer to show file extensions. For this go to Windows Explorer/ My Computers > Tools > Folder Options > View (tab) > and uncheck the ‘Hide File Extension For Known File Type’ box. This will help you to avoid clicking on hoaxes. v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Do not give out your information on the net. While surfing the web you will see that there are sites that will ask for your personal information. Do not give information about yourself and hide out information about yourself as long as you can. v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Disable JAVA and Active X. To do this under MS IE, move your default-browsing zone to High security in Tools-Internet Options. This switches off 90% of MSIE exploits. You don't have to enter the sites that don't let you enter without Java and Active X enabled. Know how to read cookies and take a close look at them. Use software like cookie crusher and every time you log online crush all your previously received cookies. If you use IE then make sure that you run Windows Update at least once a week. v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use personal firewall software. Zone Alarm (ZA) is a good one but others are available and new ones are coming up everyday. Use at least one Intrusion Detection System; Visual Zone is a good one that is compatible with ZA. 3. Chat Programs Ø  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Beware when using chat programs like IRC, ICQ, Yahoo, etc. When using these programs, your IP address is exposed leaving room for the other person to scan your computer looking for ways to break in.

Sad Exam Paper

COLLEGE of SCIENCE and ENGINEERING Department of Computer Science and Information Systems End-of-Semester Assessment Paper Academic Year: Module Title: Duration of Exam: Lecturer(s): 2008/2009 Systems Analysis 2. 5 Hours J. J. Collins Semester: Module Code: Percent of Total Marks: Paper marked out of : Spring CS4125 60 100 Instructions to Candidates: †¢ Answer Q1, and any TWO other questions. Q1 Answer ALL parts. Total marks awarded for this question: 40. a) b) Distinguish analysis from design. 4 marks. What are the benefits and liabilities derived by subscribing to a development philosophy based on up-front design? marks. c) d) List the activities that take place in system design. 4 marks. What are the characteristics of the Extreme Programming (XP) approach to software development? 4 marks. What are the benefits of an open and closed architecture? 4 marks. f) What problem is addressed by Gamma et al. ’s Behavioural state pattern? Illustrate this pattern through the use of a class diagram. 4 marks. g) h) Illustrate initialisation in the MVC architecture using a sequence diagram. 4 marks. List the support features typically offered by a DBMS? 4 marks. e) Page 1 of 5 i)Draw a class diagram that illustrates that a copy can be a copy of a book or DVD, but not both. 4 marks. Briefly critique The UML. 4 marks. j) Q2 Answer ALL parts. Total marks awarded for this question: 30. a) b) What are the characteristics of good software? 5 marks. Describe the unique features of the Object-Oriented paradigm, and illustrate polymorphism with pseudocode or coding fragments. 5 marks. Distinguish multiple classification from generalisation, and illustrate with a diagram. 5 marks. How are contracts supported in software engineering, and illustrate with a diagram.You should briefly discuss support for enforcement of contracts. 5 marks. Draw a diagram to illustrate the principle of â€Å"programming to interfaces, not implementation†. What benefits are derived by a dhering to this principle? 5 marks. f) What is meant by behavioural subtyping? Illustrate the answer with a class diagram. 5 marks. c) d) e) Q3 Answer ALL parts. Total marks awarded for this question: 30. a) What are non-functional requirements, and provide a categorisation for these requirements. 5 marks. Critique use cases as the means of capturing requirements. 5 marks. ) What technique is used by Data Driven Design (DDD) to identify key domain abstractions? Name an alternative approach to DDD. 5 marks. d) The following is a restatement of requirements that must be supported in the first iteration. Books and Journals: The library contains books and journals. It may have several copies of a given book. Some of the books are for short term loans only. All other books may be borrowed by any library member for three weeks. Members of the library can normally borrow up to six items at a time, but members of staff may borrow up to 12 items at one time.Only members of staff may borrow j ournals. b) Page 2 of 5 Borrowing: the system must keep track of when books and journals are borrowed and returned, enforcing the rules described above. Identify the candidate classes in the following informal use case description, and give the reasons for the elimination of poor candidates using a clearly specified set of heuristics. Then briefly sketch a class diagram. 5 marks. e) Draw a UML diagram that reflects the following code fragment. Class Order †¦ Public OrderLine getLineItem(Product aProduct); Public void addLineItem(Number amount, Product forProduct); †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 marks. ) What is the purpose of adding a control class to the communication fragment used to support a collaboration which realises a use case? 5 marks. Figure 1. State chart for a Campaign object (adapted from Agate case study in Bennett, McRobb, and Farmer. Object-Oriented Systems Analysis and Design, Third Edition. McGraw-Hill. 2006). Page 3 of 5 Q4 Answer ALL parts. Tot al marks awarded for this question: 30. a) Describe the algorithmic and non-algorithmic techniques used to document a specification for an operation. 6 marks. Modify the state chart in figure 1 when instructed that: 1.A campaign object can be both Monitoring and Running when in the state active. 2. When Monitoring, it can be in substates survey or evaluation, with survey being the default. 3. When the event surveyComplete() fires, a transition from survey to evaluation takes place. 4. When the event runSurvey() fires, a transition from evaluation to survey takes place. 5. When running, it can be in substates advert preparation, scheduling or running adverts, with advert preparation being the default. 6. A transition from advert preparation to scheduling occurs with invocation of he reflexive operation authorise() when the event advertApproved() fires. 7. A transition from scheduling to running adverts occurs when the event confirmSchedule() fires. 8. A transition from running advert s to advert preparation occurs with invocation of the reflexive operation modifyBudget() when the event extendCampaign() fires. 9. A transition from Active to Suspended occurs with invocation of the reflexive operation stopAdverts() when the event suspendCampaign() fires. 10. A transition from Suspended to Active occurs when the event resumeCampaign() fires. 1. Must support shallow histories for the concurrent submachines Running and Monitoring. 6 marks. Draw an activity diagram that captures the following workflow for a conference organiser: †¢ The conference organiser receives an itinerary. †¢ He/She then sends this to an invited speaker. †¢ The invited speaker either confirms the itinerary or fails to respond within 48 hours. †¢ If no response has been received, the conference organiser cancels the itinerary. †¢ Otherwise, the conference organiser books the itinerary. 6 marks.Describe two types of coupling and three types of cohesion as described by Coad and Yourdon (1991), that apply at the class level. 6 marks. e) What problem is addressed by Gamma et al. ’s Composite structural pattern? Illustrate this pattern through the use of a class diagram. 6 marks. b) c) d) Page 4 of 5 Q5 Answer ALL parts. Total marks awarded for this question: 30. a) Draw a sequence diagram to illustrate the workflows and phases in the Rational Unified Process (RUP). 3 marks. List three principles that underpin the RUP. 3 marks. ) Briefly discuss transparency versus safety with respect to the Composite design pattern. 6 marks. d) Describe Smalltalk’s Model View Control (MVC) architecture, and illustrate your answer through the use of a class diagram. 4 marks. e) Draw a sequence diagram to illustrate initialisation of the MVC architectural pattern. 4 marks. f) Describe the Broker architecture with proxies, and illustrate your answer through the use of a sequence diagram. 4 marks. g) Why should software engineers strive to specify pre and post conditions with Object Constraint Language (OCL). 6 marks. b) Page 5 of 5

The Decline in the Ecological Quality of the woodland, Heathland and Wetland Areas in the New Forest

The New Forest, a landscape enjoyed by many as a wonderful break from the bustle of city life, An abundance of species rich habitats, a place of solitude, as open space to be valued and conserved for both present and future generations. To many the New forest may seem an unchanging mosaic of forest, heath and wetland interlocked with small rural settlements whose traditional character seem almost timeless. However beneath this uniquely picturesque landscape lies an environment which is both complex and forever changing, a landscape which through history, has been heavily influenced by man and his activities. The precise role of man and the influence he is having upon the natural environment often creates a complex set of management issues. These issues embody not only concerns for the environment but often have economic implications for the wider community. The New Forest is a good example of this; it has many conflicting uses and hence requires management. Figure two displays this range of habitats. Habitat Area/ha Heathland/Acid Grassland 11740 Valley Mires and Wet Heaths 238 Unenclosed Deciduous Woodland 4049 Statutory Silvicultural Enclosures 8100 Unenclosable (open to exercise of common rights) 19028 Fig2: The proportions of different habitats It is the largest area of unsown vegetation in lowland Britain. Each habitat is affected differently by different uses, which in the past may have caused a decline in their ecological quality, it is both these uses and the management strategies associated with them that will be the focus of this article. History of Landuse and Management The forest became appointed to the crown as Royal Forest nine hundred years ago, it was used as a reservation for deer and domestic stock. This grazing and browsing limited the regeneration of trees and shrubs. It is currently under the management of the Forestry Commission as detailed in the Forestry and New Forest acts. The Forestry Commission is responsible for the ancient and ornamental woodlands and their timber enclosures this is refered to as the ‘Crown Land'. They are required to give priority to conservation of the forests traditional character. They practice forestry in the Silvicultural Enclosures and have a responsibility for managing the unenclosed forest. The New Forest Heritage area will be referred to as the ‘New Forest'. The common land within the perambulation will be referred to as the ‘Open Forest'. Privately owned and fenced lands will be refered to as ‘Enclosed lands'. Fig 1:Dockens area Fig 3: The New Forest Heritage Area Ten Verderers became responsible for management of communal animals depastured in open forest. They regulated the right of the common promoting the improvement of grazing for the commoners. However these days there are strict guidelines which commoners must adhere to, to try to ensure the retention and sometimes improvement of the landscape quality. In July 1994 the government recognised the New Forest as a unique area giving it similar protection as a national park. It also possesses other designations, it is a SSSI although this offers protection from development it offers little in the way of conservation. In 1996 the New Forest Committee published a management plan entitled ‘A strategy for the New Forest' its individual aims and strategies will be assessed throughout this article. The Committee represents the principal central and local government organisations in the forest who include Countryside Commission English Nature Forestry Commission Hampshire County Council New Forest District Council Verderers of the New Forest Salisbury District Council Test Valley Borough Council Wiltshire County Council (as Observers) Country Landowners' Association National Farmers' Union (as Observers) The development of a management strategy like The New Forest Strategy is important as it recognises the interests of all groups concerned, although the participation of so many organisations that often have conflicting interests may often make management difficult. Today most of the New Forest exists as a pastoral economy based on the exercise of common rights and grazing. The community of farmers made up of between three to four hundred commoners depend upon this for their livelihoods hence the combination of this and conservation makes management more difficult. It is thought that grazing has had a greater effect on vegetation than peat cutting and deforestation, indeed it is thought the landscape has evolved to its present state through the effects of grazing. In each area ecological quality is affected differently by a variety of different uses, so it will be necessary to assess the decline of each one in turn. Woodland Although there are both Silvicultural enclosures and ancient unenclosed deciduous woodland it is the later that possess the most nature conservation value. The silvicultural enclosures though contain approximately 40% of Oak and Beech some containing unmodified former pasture woodland. Because these enclosures have been less grazed than the unenclosed woodland contain many rare plants including bastard balm and the lungwort. These enclosures also contain large populations of predatory birds such as Buzzards and sparrow hawks. Fig 4: Native trees during flood Oak and Beech dominate the unenclosed deciduous woodland, Oaks being more dominant on heavier soils varying in proportion. Under this canopy Holly dominates along with maple and hawthorn. Older oaks contain the richest woodland lichen flora in Lowland Europe while insectivorous birds colonise decaying timber. This area is open to the exercise of common rights and has been for many years, indeed this habitat is Semi-natural, and exists as a Plagioclimax. There has been much research to determine whether this grazing of domestic stock has caused an ecological decline in these forests The animals can be very selective hence the less edible plants may become the most dominant. As a result much research has been undertaken to assess the effects of grazing on woodland. This is in many ways an attempt to determine the level of grazing necessary to prevent further damage to the environment and slow down any ecological decline associated with it. During 1960 Dr George Peterken established ‘The age structure of the enclosed woodlands was related to fluctuations of large herbivores since at least the eighteenth century'. He also found that the most recent periods of regeneration of woodland were 1860-1910 and 1930-1945. The first of these followed the killing of most of the deer population after the order of the deer conservation act in 1851, while the second was due to a slow market and a corresponding reduction in stocks. This had a dramatic effect on the landscape and remains proof of the limiting effect of grazing both on woodland quality and area, as it followed the generation of new trees in adjacent areas. However nowadays commoning has been more intensive and there have been too many invertebrates to allow such natural regeneration. Clearly Herbivores influence species composition and age structure of woods so much so that in the New Forest today elm lime and hazel no longer make up the canopy of the majority of woodland. Research by Prof. Barber of Southampton Univ. has highlighted these reductions in diversity. His pollen diagrams show that elm and lime die out suddenly. He attributes this to them being felled and failing to regenerate. He has also documented a decline in hazel and its disappearance recently. Documentary evidence from 16th and 17th centuries shows hazel to be common. All of this evidence shows a slow increase in browse resistant holly, a decline in ecological quality, which can only be attributed to selective grazing. In comparing this to private forest of similar edaphic quality that has mainly been coppiced we find hazel still abundant along with a rich herb layer. This is in comparison to the sparse herb layer of the grazed area, which comprises of around a poor thirty species. The ungrazed area also contains many lichens and deadwood invertebrates, hence a wide variety and species richness. Management of Woodland The New Forest Committee in their Strategy for the New Forest recognises that ‘Grazing in open forest by sheep and cattle has a strong influence on the age regeneration and species type of the vegetation' They also recognise that the numbers and proportions of ponies to cattle have a significant effect on the ecology of the forest. It refers to ‘The Lingworth Report' on grazing. It suggests that pony and cattle premium schemes and marking fees should be used as a mechanism for influencing numbers turned out. Recent research however has shown that social and cultural factors play a greater role in decision making. The report recognises that commoning is poor source of income for commoners and that restrictions on landuse and stock numbers may have profound effects on their livelihoods and the local economy. The Forestry commissions policy is ‘to conserve woodland as an essential component of the traditional character of the forest'. Part of the ‘New Forest review' recommends that ‘The maximum feasible area of native area of broardleaved component should be grown on the longest feasible rotations, and the possibility of restoring some conifer plantations to broardleave should be investigated'. Such recommendations are encouraging for conservation however the actual implementation may be more difficult to put into practice, while the affects of any recent measures are too early to assess. Unfortunately it is difficult for the Forestry Commission to assess the extent of deterioration or have any control over development in the privately owned forests. This is identified in the ‘Strategy for the New Forest', it recognises ‘Changes in the design and siting of new planting, changes in management practices and species composition and loss of hedgerows all have important implications for the forest as a whole' Indeed comparison of the area today to that recorded in the New Forest by English Nature during 1994 shows a reduction in quality of the landscape. It identified 94 sites supporting ancient woodland amounting to 2330ha in privately owned areas. The Report identifies that 37% of ancient woodland from these areas has now been replanted with conifers. Heathlands These are the result of mans activities particularly burning over the last three thousand years and are hence regarded as Semi-natural. Heathlands similar to woodlands have been grazed throughout history. Some heaths were part of the commoning system these are outside the Crown lands and have been enclosed since the 19th Century. Some heath is unenclosed on higher ground. The fringes of the forest in the west have extensive heaths. The heaths inside the perambulation have become degraded through recreational use and gravel extraction, this has contributed to much fragmentation and a reduction in this habitat. Scrub encroachment has become a particular problem and has led to a reduction in bio-diversity through competition. Grazing by Ponies is believed to have led to the rapid decline in populations of Dwarf Gorse an important component of the heathland. The evidence is indicating that grassland is expanding while heathland contracts and this is leading to a decline in the ecological quality of the forest. It is thought and shown by observation that this is apparent where there is intensive grazing and trampling. In 1973 Dr Colin Tubbs showed that areas of heath that had been burnt failed to regenerate due to the grazing pressure. Heathlands support birds like the Dartford Warbler, which in the New Forest has been put under threat by grazing. In 1974 Colin Bibby conducted a national survey of Dartford Warbler populations he concluded that burning and heavy grazing had reduced the birds habitat namely the heathlands, and had hence he attributed a decline in populations of Dartford Warbler to this decline in habitat. It is thought by entomologists that insects particularly butterflies were more frequently sited during the 1930's. However this is difficult to place certainty on as much of the data is unreliable. They have found that species such as High Brown, Dark Green, Pearl Bordered and many other rare species, which were abundant, are now confined to local areas. During the 1930's there was less grazing, both this and the higher diversity and this can be said is proof of this ecological decline. Colin Tubbs has expressed concern over buzzard populations who rely on heathlands as their habitat. Competition with large vertebrates is causing them to decline through limiting the number of small ground vertebrates such as rabbits by over grazing. This is the underlying Hypothesis surrounding much of Colin Tubbs work in this area. He established in 1973 that there was a large fall in buzzard production with only one out of six pairs known to rear young since then the number of successful pairs has stayed below the levels during the 1960's. This followed a large fall in the number of small rodents counted in southern England during 1970. It is difficult to place much reliability on this data. The grazing by ponies continues to be intensive and remain so unless the Forestry Commission takes action. Actions such as the erecting of fences are of little use, as Ponies seem to have a remarkable ability to leap over fences. The Forestry Commission has had to dedicate time to the removal of Ponies and this can often be very costly. Management Of Heathlands The Heathlands are managed by the Forestry Commission, during 1986 the New Forest Review group recommended that some conifer or open woods should be returned to open heathland to reduce there decline, purely in the interests of conservation. The Forestry Commission has already started this holistic approach away from the economic needs of forestry to those of conservation. Many of the proposals outlined in the ‘Strategy for the New Forest' aims to: ‘work with landowners to conserve and extend heathland reinstating traditional management where possible' RA3.73b.8. This will be possibly hard to implement, as the economic needs of commoners may be difficult to overcome in the pursuit of conservation. This may only be possible through the adoption of joint marketing of Forest animals and produce to offset the financial implications of this proposal. This is outlined in section 4.1.6 of the report. The Forestry Commission is responsible for the management of the majority of these areas and there is a tendency for their economic implications to override those of conservation. Management also aims to: ‘Raise awareness of the ecological importance of heathland and encourage local support for its conservation' [RA3.7c]. This is important as raising awareness of the public can lead to involvement through voluntary organisations which can lead to a reduction in expenditure by government and an increase in the amount of positive management for conservation. Although this is hard to implement as it often involves some expensive form of interpretative media. All these policies aim to restore and recreate heathland, although the effects of these actions to the problems already discussed are not yet visible. Wetland's The New Forest possesses ninety valley mires of which there are only 120 in the whole of Europe, these have high conservation importance. Draining during the 1950's and 60's has lead to a reduction in the ecological quality of these environments. Restoration of these areas is important as some pockets contain unique flora and flora, an immense biological richness. They provide both grazing and water for forest animals. Rare species include slender cotton grass (Eriophorum gracile), bog orchid (Hammarabga paludose) which are very rare in Southern England. The Forestry Commission previously had a duty to drain many mires in an effort to fulfil the statutory obligations of ‘The New Forest Act of 1949'. Unfortunately it is only recently that the importance of this habitat ecologically has become realised. It is now part of the ‘New Forest special area of conservation' and is both a ‘RAMSAR' wetland and a ‘SSSI'. The most important Mires are located in the Crown lands. The wetlands also include many rivers and their floodplains, while there are historic water meadows and fifty ponds, these also posses high bio-diversity and require management. Many of the streams are rare due to there acid nature hence they support rare species. There has been a reduction in the ecological quality of these areas by modifying or straitening of the marine channels. Low levels in the Rivers and streams have been attributed to a lowering of the water table by boreholes and streams. Management of Wetlands In relation to rivers and streams, the ‘Environment Agency' has developed a ‘Catchment management plan' for the New Forest. Which is concerned with the future management of these areas. The recommended actions associated with this management I am unaware of. In relation to mires the Strategy aims to: ‘Restore and enhance damaged valley mires' [RA3.8b]0 This involves techniques to slow the flow of water restoring levels of water to how they were before drainage. This is achieved by installing small dams along small ditches in an attempt to drain the mire. It tries to mimic natural channel blocking; it is hoped that this will halt headwald erosion. Deep channels have developed in some places, which are a hazard to livestock and damaging to the mire. ‘The Forestry Commission' has been aiming to infill these with local material to hope that they blend in with surrounding heathland vegetation. Again many of these important areas of conservation occur in the Crown land i.e.- Mires. In one of its recommended actions the Forestry Commission work with land managers and advise them in areas where conservation may not be the land managers highest priority. In Relation to this the strategy aims to: ‘Identify wetland features important to the traditional character of the New Forest and work with landowners/land managers to secure their conservation.' [RA3.8a], see also RA3.3c0 It is clear now that the New possess a very complex range of management issues and that successful management will require great co-operation between all groups who have an interest for one reason or another in the New Forest.

Impulse - Force Over Time

Impulse - Force Over Time Force applied over time creates an impulse, a change in momentum. Impulse is defined in classical mechanics as a force multiplied by the amount of time it acts over. In calculus terms, the impulse can be calculated as the integral of force with respect to time.  The symbol for impulse is J or Imp.   Force is a vector quantity (the direction matters) and impulse is also a vector in the same direction. When an impulse is applied to an object, it has a vector change in its linear momentum. Impulse is the product of the average net force acting on an object and its duration.  J  Ã‚  F̅Δt Alternately, impulse can be calculated as the difference in momentum between two given instances.  Impulse change in momentum force x time. Units of Impulse The SI unit of impulse is the same as for momentum, the Newton second N*s or kg*m/s. The two terms are equal. English engineering units for impulse are pound-second (lbf*s) and slug-foot per second (slug*ft/s). The Impulse-Momentum Theorem This theorem is logically equivalent to Newtons second law of motion: force equals mass times acceleration, also known as the force law. The change in momentum of an object equals the impulse applied to it.  J  Ã‚  ÃŽâ€ p. This theorem can be applied to a constant mass or to a changing mass. It is relevant especially to rockets, where the mass of the rocket changes as fuel is expended to produce the thrust. Impulse of Force The product of average force and the time in which it is exerted is the impulse of force. It is equal to the change of momentum of an object that isnt changing mass. This is a useful concept when you are studying impact forces. If you increase the time over which the change of force happens, the impact force also decreases. This is used in mechanical design for safety, and it is useful in sports applications as well. You want to reduce the impact force for a car hitting guardrail, for example, by designing the guardrail to collapse as well as designing parts of the car to crumple on impact. This lengthens the time of the impact and therefore the force. If you want a ball to be propelled further, you want to shorten the time of impact with a racket or bat, raising the impact force. Meanwhile, a boxer knows to lean away from a punch so it takes longer in landing, reducing the impact. Specific Impulse Specific impulse is a measure of the efficiency of rockets and jet engines. It is the total impulse that is produced by a unit of propellant as it is consumed. If a rocket has a higher specific impulse, it needs less propellant to gain altitude, distance, and speed. It is the equivalent of the thrust divided by the propellant flow rate. If the propellant weight is used (in Newton or pound), specific impulse is measured in seconds. This is often how rocket engine performance is reported by manufacturers.

Free Essays on Conflict Theory

Conflict theory sociologists say that society is made up of groups that compete for scarce resources. It established that power and social inequality are main characteristics of society. Karl Marx is the founder of CT. He felt that the key to history is class struggle. Marx theorized that there were only two groups: the bourgeoisie or capitalists that control the means of production and the proletariat or working class who are a mass of exploited laborers. Later CT adherents proposed different class structures. Wright defined four classes (Capitalist, Petty Bourgeoisie, managers and workers). Gilbert & Kahl proposed 6 classes (Capitalist, upper middle, lower middle, working class, working poor, and under class). There are three determining factors in social class: wealth, power and prestige or respect. People generally rank very similar in all three dimensions. Sutherland, a functional perspective sociologist, coined the term â€Å"white collar crime† to describe crimes committed by distinguished and high social status people during the course of their occupation. White-collar crime, also called crimes in the suites, costs the US more than twice that of crime in the streets. It occurs when privileged members of society encounter â€Å"opportunities† to better their financial position and disregard the needs of other members. This is example illustrates white-collar crime perfectly. Edwards used his contacts within his business and political networks to better his personal financial position. C Wright Mills said that â€Å"power† or the ability to enforce your will despite resistance, is in the hands of few. He contradicted the ideology of equality and coined the term â€Å"power elite† to describe the few at the top of US society with the power to make the important decisions. To determine what groups are in conflict, first establish who has the power to enforce their desires on others. A governor could easily be perceived as... Free Essays on Conflict Theory Free Essays on Conflict Theory Conflict theory sociologists say that society is made up of groups that compete for scarce resources. It established that power and social inequality are main characteristics of society. Karl Marx is the founder of CT. He felt that the key to history is class struggle. Marx theorized that there were only two groups: the bourgeoisie or capitalists that control the means of production and the proletariat or working class who are a mass of exploited laborers. Later CT adherents proposed different class structures. Wright defined four classes (Capitalist, Petty Bourgeoisie, managers and workers). Gilbert & Kahl proposed 6 classes (Capitalist, upper middle, lower middle, working class, working poor, and under class). There are three determining factors in social class: wealth, power and prestige or respect. People generally rank very similar in all three dimensions. Sutherland, a functional perspective sociologist, coined the term â€Å"white collar crime† to describe crimes committed by distinguished and high social status people during the course of their occupation. White-collar crime, also called crimes in the suites, costs the US more than twice that of crime in the streets. It occurs when privileged members of society encounter â€Å"opportunities† to better their financial position and disregard the needs of other members. This is example illustrates white-collar crime perfectly. Edwards used his contacts within his business and political networks to better his personal financial position. C Wright Mills said that â€Å"power† or the ability to enforce your will despite resistance, is in the hands of few. He contradicted the ideology of equality and coined the term â€Å"power elite† to describe the few at the top of US society with the power to make the important decisions. To determine what groups are in conflict, first establish who has the power to enforce their desires on others. A governor could easily be perceived as...